Which Of The Following Characterizes Pubertal Change In Adolescents?

Physical Development in Boyhood

During puberty, an adolescent experiences a flow of rapid physical growth that culminates in sexual maturity.

Learning Objective

Review the milestones of physical development in boyhood

Key Takeaways

Key Points

• Boyhood is the flow of development that begins at puberty and ends at emerging adulthood; the typical age range is from 12 to 18 years, and this stage of evolution has some predictable physical milestones.
• Puberty involves distinctive physiological changes in an individual's height, weight, torso composition, sex characteristics, and circulatory and respiratory systems. These changes are largely influenced past hormonal action.
• During puberty, the adolescent develops secondary sexual activity characteristics (such as a deeper vocalization in males and the development of breasts and hips in females) as their hormonal balance shifts strongly towards an developed state.
• The adolescent growth spurt is a rapid increment in an private's acme and weight during puberty resulting from the simultaneous release of growth hormones, thyroid hormones, and androgens.
• Considering rates of physical evolution vary and so widely among teenagers, puberty can be a source of pride or embarrassment.

Key Terms

• menarche: The onset of catamenia in homo females; the beginning of the menstrual period.
• puberty: The historic period at which a person is first capable of sexual reproduction.
• gonad: A sex organ that produces gametes; specifically, a testicle or ovary.

Adolescence

Boyhood is a socially constructed concept. In pre-industrial guild, children were considered adults when they reached physical maturity; however, today we accept an extended fourth dimension between childhood and adulthood known equally adolescence. Adolescence is the period of development that begins at puberty and ends at emerging adulthood; the typical age range is from 12 to 18 years, and this stage of development has some predictable physical milestones.

Physical Changes of Puberty

Puberty is the period of several years in which rapid physical growth and psychological changes occur, culminating in sexual maturity. The onset of puberty typically occurs at age 10 or eleven for females and at historic period 11 or 12 for males; females unremarkably complete puberty by ages fifteen to 17, while males commonly finish around ages xvi to 17. Females tend to accomplish reproductive maturity virtually four years after the first physical changes of puberty appear. Males, however, accelerate more slowly but continue to grow for well-nigh 6 years after the starting time visible pubertal changes. While the sequence of concrete changes in puberty is predictable, the onset and stride of puberty vary widely. Every person's individual timetable for puberty is unlike and is primarily influenced by heredity; still environmental factors—such as diet and practice—likewise exert some influence.

Hormonal Changes

Puberty involves distinctive physiological changes in an individual's top, weight, body limerick, and circulatory and respiratory systems. During this time, both the adrenal glands and the sex glands mature—processes known as adrenarche and gonadarche, respectively.

These changes are largely influenced by hormonal activeness. Hormones play an organizational role (priming the body to acquit in a certain mode once puberty begins) and an activational function (triggering sure behavioral and physical changes). During puberty, the adolescent's hormonal balance shifts strongly towards an adult state; the process is triggered by the pituitary gland, which secretes a surge of hormonal agents into the blood stream and initiates a concatenation reaction.

Sexual Maturation

It is this stage in life in which a child develops secondary sex characteristics. Primary sex characteristics are organs specifically needed for reproduction, like the uterus and ovaries in females and the testes in males. Secondary sexual practice characteristics, on the other manus, are physical signs of sexual maturation that do non straight involve sex organs. In females, this includes evolution of breasts and widening of hips, while in males it includes development of facial hair and deepening of the voice. Both sexes experience development of pubic and underarm pilus, every bit well as increased development of sweat glands.

The male person and female gonads are activated past the surge of hormones, which puts them into a state of rapid growth and evolution. The testes primarily release testosterone, and the ovaries release estrogen; the product of these hormones increases gradually until sexual maturation is met. Girls feel menarche, the beginning of menstrual periods, commonly around 12–xiii years old, and boys experience spermarche, the offset ejaculation, effectually 13–14 years old. Facial hair in males typically appears effectually age 14.

Concrete Growth

The adolescent growth spurt is a rapid increment in an private's pinnacle and weight during puberty resulting from the simultaneous release of growth hormones, thyroid hormones, and androgens. Males feel their growth spurt virtually two years later than females. The accelerated growth in dissimilar trunk parts happens at different times, merely for all adolescents information technology has a adequately regular sequence. The first places to grow are the extremities (head, easily, and feet), followed by the arms and legs, and later the torso and shoulders. This non-uniform growth is one reason why an boyish body may seem out of proportion. During puberty, bones go harder and more than brittle.

Before puberty, there are about no differences between males and females in the distribution of fat and muscle. During puberty, males abound musculus much faster than females, and females experience a college increase in trunk fatty. The ratio betwixt muscle and fat in post-pubertal males is around 1:3, while for males it is about 5:four. An adolescent'due south middle and lungs increase in both size and capacity during puberty; these changes contribute to increased strength and tolerance for exercise.

Brain Development

The adolescent brain besides remains under development during this time. Adolescents often engage in increased risk-taking behaviors and experience heightened emotions during puberty; this may exist due to the fact that the frontal lobes of their brains—which are responsible for judgment, impulse control, and planning—are still maturing until early on adulthood (Casey, Tottenham, Liston, & Durston, 2005).

Brain Development During Adolescence: Brain growth continues into the early 20s. The development of the frontal lobe, in particular, is important during this stage.

Effects of Physical Development

Because rates of physical development vary so widely among teenagers, puberty tin can be a source of pride or embarrassment. Early maturing boys tend to be physically stronger, taller, and more athletic than their later on maturing peers; this can contribute to differences in popularity among peers, which can in turn influence the teenager'south confidence. Some studies show that boys who mature earlier tend to be more popular and independent but are also at a greater risk for substance abuse and early sexual activeness (Flannery, Rowe, & Gulley, 1993; Kaltiala-Heino, Rimpela, Rissanen, & Rantanen, 2001). Early maturing girls may face increased teasing and sexual harassment related to their developing bodies, which tin contribute to self-consciousness and place them at a higher take chances for anxiety, depression, substance corruption, and eating disorders (Ge, Conger, & Elderberry, 2001; Graber, Lewinsohn, Seeley, & Brooks-Gunn, 1997; Striegel-Moore & Cachelin, 1999). Girls and boys who develop more than slowly than their peers may feel cocky-conscious nigh their lack of physical development; some research has found that negative feelings are especially a problem for late maturing boys, who are at a college adventure for depression and disharmonize with parents (Graber et al., 1997) and more probable to be bullied (Pollack & Shuster, 2000).

Cognitive Development in Adolescence

In boyhood, changes in the brain interact with experience, noesis, and social demands and produce rapid cerebral growth.

Learning Objective

Review the milestones of cognitive development in adolescence

Key Takeaways

Key Points

• Jean Piaget describes boyhood as the stage of life in which the individual's thoughts start taking more of an abstract course and egocentric thoughts decrease. This allows the adolescent to think and reason with a wider perspective.
• The constructivist perspective, based on the piece of work of Piaget, takes a quantitative, state-theory approach, hypothesizing that adolescents' cognitive improvement is relatively sudden and drastic.
• The data-processing perspective derives from the study of artificial intelligence and attempts to explain cognitive development in terms of the growth of specific components of the thinking procedure.
• Improvements in bones thinking abilities generally occur in five areas during adolescence: attention, memory, processing speed, organisation, and metacognition.
• Metacognition is relevant in social cognition, resulting in increased introspection, self-consciousness, and intellectualization. Adolescents are more probable to question others' assertions and less likely to accept facts equally accented truths.
• Wisdom, or the capacity for insight and judgment that is adult through experience, increases between the ages of 14 and 25; nonetheless, the tendency toward risk-taking also increases during adolescence.

Key Terms

• relativistic: Of or relating to the concept that points of view have no absolute truth or validity, and instead have simply subjective value according to differences in perception.
• mnemonic device: Any specific learning technique that aids information retention.
• prefrontal cortex: The anterior role of the frontal lobes of the brain, lying in front of the motor and premotor areas; a office of the encephalon associated with higher cognition.
• introspection: A looking inward; the act or process of cocky-test, or inspection of one's own thoughts and feelings; the cognition that the mind has of its own acts and states; self-consciousness.
• egocentric: Cocky-centered; captivated with the self; selfish.
  intellectualization: The act or process of finding a seemingly rational explanation for something.

Cognitive Development and Changes in the Brain

Adolescence is a fourth dimension for rapid cognitive development. Cognitive theorist Jean Piaget describes adolescence every bit the stage of life in which the individual's thoughts start taking more of an abstruse form and egocentric thoughts subtract. This allows an private to think and reason with a wider perspective. This phase of cerebral development, termed by Piaget as the formal operational stage, marks a movement from an power to call back and reason from concrete visible events to an ability to think hypothetically and entertain what-if possibilities about the world. An private can solve bug through abstract concepts and apply hypothetical and deductive reasoning. Adolescents utilize trial and error to solve problems, and the ability to systematically solve a problem in a logical and methodical way emerges.

Piaget'due south stages of cognitive evolution: Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development includes 4 stages: sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operational, and formal operational.

Biological changes in brain structure and connectivity in the brain collaborate with increased experience, knowledge, and changing social demands to produce rapid cerebral growth. These changes generally begin at puberty or shortly thereafter, and some skills continue to develop equally an boyish ages. Development of executive functions, or cognitive skills that enable the control and coordination of thoughts and beliefs, are mostly associated with the prefrontal cortex area of the brain. The thoughts, ideas, and concepts developed at this catamenia of life greatly influence one's time to come life and play a major role in character and personality formation.

Perspectives and Advancements in Boyish Thinking

There are ii perspectives on adolescent thinking: constructivist and information-processing. The constructivist perspective, based on the work of Piaget, takes a quantitative, state-theory approach. This view hypothesizes that adolescents' cognitive improvement is relatively sudden and desperate. The information-processing perspective derives from the written report of bogus intelligence and explains cerebral development in terms of the growth of specific components of the overall procedure of thinking.

Improvements in bones thinking abilities by and large occur in 5 areas during adolescence:

• Attending. Improvements are seen in selective attention (the process past which one focuses on 1 stimulus while tuning out another), equally well equally divided attention (the power to pay attention to two or more stimuli at the same time).
• Memory. Improvements are seen in both working memory and long-term memory.
• Processing Speed. Adolescents think more quickly than children. Processing speed improves sharply between age five and middle boyhood, levels off around historic period 15, and does non appear to change betwixt late adolescence and machismo.
• Organization. Adolescents are more aware of their own thought processes and can apply mnemonic devices and other strategies to call back more efficiently.
• Metacognition. Adolescents tin can call up about thinking itself. This oft involves monitoring one'due south ain cognitive activity during the thinking process. Metacognition provides the ability to program ahead, run across the future consequences of an activeness, and provide alternative explanations of events.

Metacognition and Relativistic Thinking

Metacognition is relevant in social cognition and results in increased introspection, self-consciousness, and intellectualization. Adolescents are much amend able to empathise that people practice not have complete control over their mental activity. Beingness able to introspect may pb to two forms of egocentrism, or self-focus, in adolescents, which result in two distinct problems in thinking: the imaginary audition (when an boyish believes anybody is listening to him or her) and the personal legend (which causes adolescents to feel that null harmful could always happen to them). Adolescents reach a phase of social perspective-taking in which they can understand how the thoughts or actions of one person can influence those of another person, fifty-fifty if they personally are non involved.

Adolescents are more likely to engage in relativistic thinking—in other words, they are more probable to question others' assertions and less probable to accept information as accented truth. Through experience outside the family unit circumvolve, they learn that rules they were taught every bit absolute are actually relativistic. They begin to differentiate between rules crafted from common sense (don't bear on a hot stove) and those that are based on culturally relative standards (codes of etiquette). This can lead to a menstruation of questioning authorization in all domains.

Wisdom and Risk-Taking

Wisdom, or the capacity for insight and judgment that is developed through experience, increases between the ages of 14 and 25, then levels off. Wisdom is not the same as intelligence, and adolescents do non improve essentially on IQ tests since their scores are relative to others in their age group, as everyone matures at approximately the same rate.

Adolescents are more than likely to have risks than adults. The behavioral decision-making theory proposes that adolescents and adults both counterbalance the potential rewards and consequences of an activeness. However, adolescents seem to give more weight to rewards, particularly social rewards, than do adults.

Socioemotional Evolution in Adolescence

Boyhood is a period of personal and social identity germination, in which different roles, behaviors, and ideologies are explored.

Learning Objective

Review the milestones of socioemotional development in boyhood

Cardinal Takeaways

Cardinal Points

• Boyhood is the menstruation of life known for the formation of personal and social identity. Adolescents must explore, test limits, become autonomous, and commit to an identity, or sense of self.
• Erik Erikson referred to the task of the boyish equally one of identity versus office confusion. Thus, in Erikson'due south view, an boyish'due south main questions are "Who am I?" and "Who do I want to be?"
• Early in adolescence, cerebral developments result in greater cocky-awareness, the ability to call back about abstract, future possibilities, and the ability to consider multiple possibilities and identities at in one case.
• Changes in the levels of certain neurotransmitters (such every bit dopamine and serotonin) influence the fashion in which adolescents experience emotions, typically making them more emotional and more than sensitive to stress.
• When adolescents have advanced cerebral development and maturity, they tend to resolve identity issues more than easily than peers who are less cognitively developed.
• Every bit adolescents work to form their identities, they pull abroad from their parents, and the peer group becomes very of import; despite this, relationships with parents still play a significant role in identity formation.

Key Terms

• egoistic: Cocky-centered; concerned with the cocky; selfish.
• differentiation: The act of distinguishing or describing a thing; exact definition or determination.
• self-esteem: Confidence in i's ain worth; self-respect.

Adolescence is the period of development that begins at puberty and ends at emerging adulthood; the typical age range is from 12 to xviii years, and this stage of development has some predictable psychosocial milestones. In the Usa, adolescence is seen every bit a time to develop independence from parents while remaining connected to them.

Boyish Identity Exploration

Adolescence is the period of life known for the formation of personal and social identity. Adolescents must explore, test limits, go autonomous, and commit to an identity, or sense of self. Different roles, behaviors, and ideologies must exist tried out to select an identity, and adolescents continue to refine their sense of self every bit they chronicle to others. Erik Erikson referred to the job of the adolescent as one of identity versus role confusion. Thus, in Erikson's view, an adolescent's main questions are "Who am I?" and "Who do I desire to exist?" Some adolescents adopt the values and roles that their parents provide them with; other teens develop identities that are in opposition to their parents just align with a peer group. This is mutual, as peer relationships become a central focus in adolescents' lives.

Adolescents tend to exist rather egocentric; they often experience a self-witting want to feel important in peer groups and receive social acceptance. Because choices made during boyhood can influence later life, higher levels of self-awareness and self-control in mid-boyhood volition contribute to better decisions during the transition to adulthood. 3 full general approaches to agreement identity evolution include self-concept, sense of identity, and self-esteem.

Cocky-Concept

Early in adolescence, cognitive developments event in greater self-awareness. This leads to greater awareness of others every bit well as one'due south own thoughts and judgments. Adolescents develop the ability to call up about abstruse, hereafter possibilities and consider multiple possibilities at one time. They can conceptualize multiple possible selves that they could become, as well as long-term possibilities and consequences of their choices. Adolescents can begin to authorize their traits when asked to draw themselves. Differentiation occurs as an adolescent recognizes and distinguishes the contextual factors that influence their own behavior and the perceptions of others. Differentiation becomes fully developed by mid-adolescence.

The recognition of inconsistencies in the cocky-concept is a common source of distress during these years; however, this distress may do good adolescents by encouraging further development and refinement of their cocky-concept.

Sense of Identity

Unlike the conflicting aspects of self-concept, identity represents a coherent sense of self that is stable beyond circumstances and includes past experiences and time to come goals. Erikson adamant that "identity accomplishment" resolves the identity crisis in which adolescents must explore unlike possibilities and integrate unlike parts of themselves before committing to their chosen identity. Adolescents begin by defining themselves based on their membership in a group and then focus in on a personal identity.

Self-Esteem

Self-esteem consists of ane's thoughts and feelings about 1'due south self-concept and identity. In the The states, children who are raised female are ofttimes taught that their sense of self is highly linked to their relationships with others; therefore, many boyish girls bask high self-esteem when engaged in supportive relationships with friends. The near important function of friendship here is having someone who can provide social and moral support. Children who are raised every bit male, on the other hand, are often taught to value such things every bit autonomy and independence; therefore, many boyish boys are more concerned with establishing and asserting their independence and defining their relation to authorization. Loftier cocky-esteem is frequently derived from their ability to successfully influence their friends.

Psychological Changes

During puberty, adolescents feel changes in the levels of certain neurotransmitters (such as dopamine and serotonin) in the limbic organization. This affects the fashion in which they experience emotions, typically making them more emotional than younger children and adults and more sensitive to rewards and stress.

Other cognitive developments have an impact on identity formation as well. When adolescents are able to think abstractly and reason logically, they have an easier time exploring and contemplating possible identities. When adolescents have advanced cerebral evolution and maturity, they tend to resolve identity issues more easily than peers who are less cognitively developed.

Parental Relationships

As adolescents work to form their identities, they pull away from their parents, and the peer group becomes very important (Shanahan, McHale, Osgood, & Crouter, 2007). Despite spending less time with their parents, the blazon of relationship that adolescents accept with their parents still plays a meaning office in identity formation. Warm and healthy parent-child relationships accept been associated with positive child outcomes, such as better grades and fewer schoolhouse-beliefs problems, in the United States as well as in other countries (Hair et al., 2005). When a solid and positive relationship exists, adolescents are more probable to feel liberty in exploring identity options. However, when the relationship is non as shut or supportive and/or the adolescent fears rejection from the parent, the adolescent is more than likely to feel less confident in forming a separate, personal identity.

Cultural and Societal Influences on Adolescent Evolution

The influence of parental and peer relationships, equally well as the broader civilisation, shapes many aspects of adolescent development.

Learning Objective

Examine the influence of culture and society on boyish development

Primal Takeaways

Fundamental Points

• The relationships adolescents have with their peers, family, and members of their social sphere play a vital role in their development.
• As adolescents work to form their identities, they pull away from their parents, and the peer group becomes very important. Adolescence can be a fourth dimension of increased disharmonize between parents and their children.
• Peer groups offer their members the opportunity to develop social skills; however, they can also be the source of negative influences, such as peer pressure level.
• Civilization is learned and socially shared and affects all aspects of an individual's life. Social responsibilities, sexual expression, and conventionalities-system development are all things that are likely to vary by culture.
• Adolescents develop unique belief systems through their interaction with social, familial, and cultural environments. The attitudes that a culture holds on a detail topic can have both positive and negative impacts on boyish development.

Key Terms

• norms: That which is regarded equally normal or typical; a rule that is enforced by members of a customs.
• adolescence: The transitional catamenia of physical and psychological evolution betwixt childhood and maturity.
• peer pressure: Encouragement by others in ane's age grouping to deed or behave in a sure fashion.
• puberty: The period during which a person offset becomes capable of sexual reproduction.

The relationships adolescents have with their peers, family unit, and members of their social sphere play a vital role in their evolution. Adolescence is a crucial catamenia in social development, as adolescents tin can exist hands swayed by their close relationships. Inquiry shows at that place are four master types of relationships that influence an boyish: parents, peers, community, and society.

Parental Relationships

When children go through puberty in the United States, at that place is oftentimes a significant increment in parent-kid disharmonize and a decrease in cohesive familial bonding. Arguments oft concern new problems of control, such as curfew, acceptable clothing, and the right to privacy. Parent-adolescent disagreement also increases every bit friends demonstrate a greater impact on the kid; this is especially truthful when parents do non corroborate of new friends' values or behaviors.

The parent-kid human relationship: When children go through puberty, in that location is often a pregnant increase in parent-kid disharmonize.

While adolescents strive for liberty, the unknowns tin be frightening for parents. Although conflicts betwixt children and parents increase during adolescence, they are ofttimes related to relatively minor problems. Regarding more important life problems, many adolescents will however share the same attitudes and values as their parents. Adolescents who have a skillful relationship with their parents are less likely to engage in various risky behaviors, such every bit smoking, drinking, fighting, and/or unprotected sex.

Peer Relationships

As adolescents work to form their identities, they pull away from their parents, and the peer grouping becomes very of import (Shanahan, McHale, Osgood, & Crouter, 2007). The level of influence that peers can have over an adolescent makes these relationships especially important in personal evolution. As children brainstorm to create bonds with various people, they start to grade friendships; loftier quality friendships may heighten a kid's development regardless of the particular characteristics of those friends. Adolescents associate with friends of the opposite sexual activity much more than than in childhood and tend to identify with larger groups of peers based on shared characteristics.

Peer groups offering members of the group the opportunity to develop social skills such as empathy, sharing, and leadership. Peer groups tin accept positive influences on an individual, such as bookish motivation and functioning; however, they tin can also have negative influences, such as peer pressure to engage in drug employ, drinking, vandalism, stealing, or other risky beliefs. Susceptibility to peer pressure increases during early adolescence, and while peers may facilitate positive social evolution for one another, they may besides hinder it. Emotional reactions to problems and emotional instability—both characteristic of the hormonal changes in boyhood—accept been linked with physical aggression among peers. Research has linked both physical and relational assailment to a vast number of enduring psychological difficulties, including depression.

Customs, Society, and Culture

There are certain characteristics of adolescent development that are more rooted in culture than in human biological science or cognitive structures. Civilization is learned and socially shared, and information technology affects all aspects of an individual's life. Social responsibilities, sexual expression, and belief-system evolution, for example, are all probable to vary based on civilisation. Furthermore, many distinguishing characteristics of an individual (such as dress, employment, recreation, and linguistic communication) are all products of civilisation.

Culture: Civilisation is learned and socially shared, and it affects all aspects of an individual'south life. Social responsibilities, sexual expression, and belief-system development, for instance, are all things that are likely to vary past culture.

Many factors that shape adolescent development vary past civilization. For instance, the degree to which adolescents are perceived as autonomous, or independent, beings varies widely in different cultures, every bit do the behaviors that represent this emerging autonomy. The lifestyle of an adolescent in a given culture is too greatly shaped by the roles and responsibilities he or she is expected to presume. The extent to which an boyish is expected to share family unit responsibilities, for instance, is 1 large determining factor in normative boyish behavior. Adolescents in sure cultures are expected to contribute significantly to household chores and responsibilities, while others are given more than freedom or come up from families with more privilege where responsibilities are fewer. Differences between families in the distribution of financial responsibilities or provision of allowance may reverberate various socioeconomic backgrounds, which are further influenced by cultural norms and values.

Adolescents begin to develop unique belief systems through their interaction with social, familial, and cultural environments. These belief systems encompass everything from religion and spirituality to gender, sexuality, piece of work ideals, and politics. The range of attitudes that a civilization embraces on a item topic affects the beliefs, lifestyles, and perceptions of its adolescents, and can accept both positive and negative impacts on their evolution. In the United states of america and many other parts of the earth, lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) youth face much discrimination and bullying by their peers based on the broader cultural attitudes virtually LGBTQ issues; many are ostracized from peer groups because they are seen to exist breaking culturally based gender norms. This can have a tremendous impact on the development of queer or transgender adolescents, increasing their risk for low, anxiety, and even suicide. Similarly, early-maturing girls may suffer teasing or sexual harassment related to their developing bodies, contributing to a college risk of depression, substance corruption, and eating disorders (Ge, Conger, & Elderberry, 2001; Graber, Lewinsohn, Seeley, & Brooks-Gunn, 1997; Striegel-Moore & Cachelin, 1999).

Source: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/adolescence/

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